Mining of Mineral Deposits

ISSN 2415-3443 (Online)

ISSN 2415-3435 (Print)

Flag Counter

Laboratory investigation of hybrid nanofluid – smart water flooding for enhanced oil recovery in carbonate reservoirs

Rawand Abdulla1, Hiwa Mohammed2

1Erbil Polytechnic University, Erbil, Iraq

2Kurdistan Institution for Strategic Study and Scientific Research, Sulaimani, Iraq


Min. miner. depos. 2026, 20(3): 23-29


https://doi.org/10.33271/mining20.03.023

Full text (PDF)


      ABSTRACT

      Purpose. Carbonate reservoirs account for more than half of global conventional oil reserves, yet their inherently oil-wet surfaces and complex pore architecture present persistent challenges to conventional waterflooding. This study investigates the combined application of smart water (SW) and SiO2 nanoparticles as a hybrid enhanced oil recovery (EOR) strategy to improve displacement efficiency in carbonate rock.

      Methods. Four injection scenarios were evaluated at reservoir temperature (85°C) with carbonate core samples: formation brine (FB), smart water (SW), SiO2 nanofluid (NF) at 0.05 wt.%, and a hybrid NF-SW formulation. Key measurements inclu-ded contact angle, interfacial tension (IFT), cumulative oil recovery, zeta potential, and colloidal stability over seven days.

      Findings. The hybrid NF-SW system produced the most pronounced wettability alteration (contact angle reduced from ~145 to ~28°), the lowest IFT (~4.2 mN/m), and the highest cumulative oil recovery (~74% OOIP), representing a 36-percentage-point improvement over formation brine flooding. A strong linear correlation (R2 = 0.92) was observed between contact angle and recovery factor across the four scenarios.

      Originality. This work presents the first systematic quantification of synergistic mechanisms between low-salinity smart water and SiO2 nanoparticles in carbonate cores, integrating electrokinetic, wettability, and IFT analyses within a single experimental framework.

      Practical implications. The hybrid NF-SW approach provides a technically viable and scalable EOR option for carbonate reservoirs, with implications for field-scale injection design and nanofluid formulation optimization.

      Keywords: enhanced oil recovery; smart water flooding; nanotechnology; carbonate reservoirs; wettability alteration; interfacial tension; low salinity water; silica nanoparticles


      REFERENCES

  1. Kargarpour, M.A. (2020). Carbonate reservoir characterization: An integrated approach. Journal of Petroleum Exploration and Production Technology, 10, 2655-2667. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13202-020-00946-w
  2. Roehl, P.O., & Choquette, P.W. (1985). Carbonate petroleum reservoirs. New York, United States: Springer, 622 p. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4612-5040-1
  3. Morrow, N.R., & Buckley, J. (2011). Improved oil recovery by low-salinity waterflooding. Journal of Petroleum Technology, 63(5), 106-112. https://doi.org/10.2118/129421-JPT
  4. Yousef, A.A., Al-Saleh, S., Al-Kaabi, A., & Al-Jawfi, M.S. (2011). Laboratory investigation of the impact of injection-water salinity and ionic content on oil recovery from carbonate reservoirs. SPE Reservoir Evaluation & Engineering, 14(5), 578-593. https://doi.org/10.2118/137634-PA
  5. Lager, A., Webb, K.J., Black, C.J.J., Singleton, M., & Sorbie, K.S. (2008). Low salinity oil recovery – an experimental investigation. Petrophysics, 49(1), 28-35.
  6. Ligthelm, D.J., Gronsveld, J., Hofman, J., Brussee, N., Marcelis, F., & van der Linde, H. (2009). Novel waterflooding strategy by manipulation of injection brine composition. SPE EUROPEC/EAGE Conference and Exhibition, SPE-119835-MS. https://doi.org/10.2118/119835-MS
  7. Zhang, P., Tweheyo, M.T., & Austad, T. (2007). Wettability alteration and improved oil recovery by spontaneous imbibition of seawater into chalk: Impact of the potential determining ions Ca2+, Mg2+, and SO42⁻. Colloids and Surfaces A: Physicochemical and Engineering Aspects, 301(1-3), 199-208. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.colsurfa.2006.12.058
  8. Austad, T., RezaeiDoust, A., & Puntervold, T. (2010). Chemical mechanism of low salinity water flooding in sandstone reservoirs. SPE Improved Oil Recovery Symposium, SPE-129767-MS. https://doi.org/10.2118/129767-MS
  9. Al-Shalabi, E.W., & Sepehrnoori, K. (2016). A comprehensive review of low salinity/engineered water injections and their applications in sandstone and carbonate rocks. Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering, 139, 137-161. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.petrol.2015.11.027
  10. Negin, C., Ali, S., & Xie, Q. (2016). Application of nanotechnology for enhancing oil recovery – A review. Petroleum, 2(4), 324-333. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.petlm.2016.10.002
  11. Hendraningrat, L., Li, S., & Torsæter, O. (2013). A coreflood investigation of nanofluid enhanced oil recovery. Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering, 111, 128-138. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.petrol.2013.07.003
  12. Maghzi, A., Mohebbi, A., Kharrat, R., & Ghazanfari, M.H. (2011). Pore-scale monitoring of wettability alteration by silica nanoparticles during polymer flooding to heavy oil in a five-spot glass micromodel. Transport in Porous Media, 87(3), 653-664. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11242-010-9696-3
  13. Wasan, D.T., & Nikolov, A.D. (2003). Spreading of nanofluids on solids. Nature, 423(6936), 156-159. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature01591
  14. Roustaei, A., & Bagherzadeh, H. (2015). Experimental investigation of SiO2 nanoparticles on enhanced oil recovery of carbonate reservoirs. Journal of Petroleum Exploration and Production Technology, 5(1), 27-33. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13202-014-0120-3
  15. Giraldo, J., Benjumea, P., Lopera, S., Cortés, F.B., & Ruiz, M.A. (2013). Wettability alteration of sandstone cores by alumina-based nanofluids. Energy & Fuels, 27(7), 3659-3665. https://doi.org/10.1021/ef4002956
  16. Ju, B., & Fan, T. (2009). Experimental study and mathematical model of nanoparticle transport in porous media. Powder Technology, 192(2), 195-202. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.powtec.2008.12.017
  17. Sheng, J.J. (2013). Review of surfactant enhanced oil recovery in carbonate reservoirs. Advances in Petroleum Exploration and Development, 6(1), 1-10.
  18. Olayiwola, S.O., & Dejam, M. (2019). A comprehensive review on interaction of nanoparticles with low salinity water and surfactant for enhanced oil recovery in sandstone and carbonate reservoirs. Fuel, 241, 1045-1057. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fuel.2018.12.122
  19. Hendraningrat, L., & Torsæter, O. (2015). Metal oxide-based nanoparticles: Revealing their potential to enhance oil recovery in different wettability systems. Applied Nanoscience, 5(2), 181-199. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13204-014-0305-6
  20. Sheng, J.J. (2014). Critical review of low-salinity waterflooding. Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering, 120, 216-224. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.petrol.2014.05.026
  21. Olayiwola, S.O., & Dejam, M. (2021). Comprehensive experimental study on the effect of silica nanoparticles on the oil recovery during alternating injection with low salinity water and surfactant into carbonate reservoirs. Journal of Molecular Liquids, 325, 115178. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.molliq.2020.115178
  22. Esfandyari Bayat, A., Junin, R., Samsuri, A., Piroozian, A., & Hokmabadi, M. (2014). Impact of metal oxide nanoparticles on enhanced oil recovery from limestone media at several temperatures. Energy & Fuels, 28(10), 6255-6266. https://doi.org/10.1021/ef5013616
  23. Cheraghian, G., & Hendraningrat, L. (2016). A review on applications of nanotechnology in the enhanced oil recovery part A: Effects of nanoparticles on interfacial tension. International Nano Letters, 6(3), 129-138. https://doi.org/10.1007/s40089-015-0173-4
  24. Mokhtari, R., Ayatollahi, S., & Fatemi, M. (2019). Experimental investigation of the influence of fluid – fluid interactions on oil recovery during low salinity water flooding. Journal of Petroleum Science and Engineering, 182, 106194. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.petrol.2019.106194
  25. Yousef, A.A., Liu, J., Blanchard, G., Al-Saleh, S., Al-Zahrani, T., Al-Zahrani, R., Al-Tammar, H., & Al-Mulhim, N. (2012). Smartwater flooding: Industry’s first field test in carbonate reservoirs. SPE Annual Technical Conference and Exhibition, SPE-159526. https://doi.org/10.2118/159526-ms
  26. Nazari Moghaddam, R., Bahramian, A., Fakhroueian, Z., Karimi, A., & Arya, S. (2015). Comparative study of using nanoparticles for enhanced oil recovery: wettability alteration of carbonate rocks. Energy & Fuels, 29(4), 2111-2119. https://doi.org/10.1021/ef5024719
  27. Donaldson, E.C., Chilingarian, G.V., & Yen, T.F. (1989). Enhanced oil recovery, II: Processes and operations. New York, United States: Elsevier, 592 p.
  28. Ravera, F., Santini, E., Loglio, G., Ferrari, M., & Liggieri, L. (2006). Effect of nanoparticles on the interfacial properties of liquid/liquid and liquid/air surface layers. The Journal of Physical Chemistry B, 110(39), 19543-19551. https://doi.org/10.1021/jp0636468
  29. Anderson, W.G. (1987). Wettability literature survey – Part 6: The effects of wettability on waterflooding. Journal of Petroleum Technology, 39(12), 1605-1622. https://doi.org/10.2118/16471-PA
  30. Hunter, R.J. (1981). Zeta potential in colloid science: Principles and applications. New York, United States: Academic Press, 386 p. https://doi.org/10.1016/C2013-0-07389-6
  31. Metin, C.O., Lake, L.W., Miranda, C.R., & Nguyen, Q.P. (2011). Stability of aqueous silica nanoparticle dispersions. Journal of Nanoparticle Research, 13(2), 839-850. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11051-010-0085-1

Лицензия Creative Commons

Copyright © 2026 Dnipro University of Technology

Underground Mining Department

All Rights Reserved.

Journal homepage Authors